19th century British women's views on the wages of R & D

[Summary] 19th-century British women's wages in different industries and different periods of time differences, generally speaking, their wages are lower than the industry men, belonging to low-income groups in society. The reason, mainly in the traditional 'men outside the women inside' concept, women were not equal with men skills Education, the wages of the bourgeois theory of the trade union movement, national legislation had to use this concept, the maintenance men gender superiority, so that women in a subordinate position. Therefore, to change women's gender disadvantage, not only economic and political modernization of material conditions, but also need to break the traditional concept of a revolution.
[Abstract Title] The World's Women
[English Abstract] In the 19th century the differences of British womens' pay existed in different trades and at different times. On the whole women 's pay was lower than the man' s in the same trade and women belonged to the low-pay group. That resulted from the traditional idea that men are in charge of external affairs while women in chareg of internal affairs and women couldn 't get equal skill training as men. With this viewpoint the bourgeois theory of pay, trade union movement and state legislation all maintained men 's sex advantage and made women subordinate to men. So the change of women' s sex disadvantage not only demands the material conditions of economic and political modernization but a revolution to do away with traditional ideas.
[Keywords:] British women / gender wage / men outside the women inside
        British women / sex pay / men in charge of external affairs and women in charge of internal affairs
[Text]
        CLC number: C913. 68 Document: A Article ID :1671-6574 (2005) 06-0034-07
        19th-century England the wages of working women a direct impact on women's family status and social status is related to the evaluation of standard of living for working families, as well as industrialization and modernization of the overall assessment. That this issue receives in the British economic history, social history, women study of the history of Western scholars are concerned about. Although the situation of women in wage labor are often not fully registered, increasing the difficulty of the study, many Chinese scholars involved in this issue, fewer studies, but to study the issue, for China's modernization process, to correctly handle the relations between the sexes in the labor market, improve Women's economic status, social status has a similar approach.
                        First, the wages of women
        The process of modernization in the 19th-century England, women are quickly marginalized, most of them employed at home or in an extension of labor within the family, are non-skilled, low pay industries. 1851, 80% of working women employed in the textile, clothing industry, pArt of the home service industry. Among them, of the home servants accounted for 40% of the number of women practitioners. In general, male groups, compared to the majority of women a long period of low-wage state, and more vulnerable to price fluctuations and lack of impact of working hours. Women's wages in different industries, different regions is different. Due to space limitations, this Article only to workers with higher number of women's wages in several sectors the situation as a whole investigation.
        19th-century British textile industry is the second largest female occupations. Women in the industry only in the comb, weaving and other dirty, tired, low-skilled, low-wage sector. Even if the same work as men employed in the sector, women tend to do auxiliary work, or under the supervision of male workers to ensure the machine running at full capacity. Almost all of the skilled trades, women are subject to rejection. The late 19th century, 20, 30 early, the wages of women in general wages of men 1 / 3 to 1 / 2, the highest of men only 2 / 3. [1] (P. 25) 1834 Nian Lancashire wages of an adult female is about 40% of men (see Table 1).
        Table 1 1834 Lancashire adult female and male wage [2] (P. 251) Male Female
Age, the number of weeks the number of average weekly wages of the average wage
16-21 years old 73610 Xianling 2 further 1 / 2 penny 12407 shillings 1 / 2 pence,
21-2661217 Xian Ling 2 then 1 / 2 pence, 5 pence 7808 Xianling
26-3135520 Xian Ling 4 again 1 / 2 penny 2958 Xianling 7 1 / 2 penny
31-3621522 Xian Ling 8 also 1 / 2 penny 1008 Xianling 9 then 1 / 2 penny
36-4116821 Xian Ling 7 3 / 4 pence 819 Xianling 8 3 / 4 pence
41-469820 Xianling 3 1 / 2 pence 389 Xianling 3 1 / 2 pence,
46-518316 Xianling 7 1 / 4 pence 238 pence Xianling 10
  
        According to a cotton factory in 1859: The factory workers accounted for 74%, men's average weekly wage is 18 shillings six pence, women workers are 10 shillings 2 pence. [2] (P. 250,251)
        'Sweat the industry' refers to sewing, knitting and other manual labor depArtment, but also a larger number of female employment in industries. In the 'sweat sectors' employment of female workers lower wages than the factory system workers. Such as the 19th century London, 30 to 50 years in the garment industry, the young seamstress annual income of about 12 ~ 20 pounds. A young female day laborers, wage income of about seven shillings a week, one year only 7 to 8 months to work. Pants to do a weekly net income of women is four shillings 5 pence, while the shirt industry net income per week is only two shillings three pence. [1] (P. 47) to 1901, 14,910 were women in the garment industry, the highest weekly wages are 18 shillings 1 / 2 pence, the minimum wage was two shillings 4.5 pence. [3] (P. 29)
        PArt of the home services sector is the largest number of female employment in the work of departments. Part of the home service industry workers employed as maids am a long-term and temporary part-time. Between the two is mainly engaged in burning, washing, cleaning house, laundry, child care and other housework. Footman is mainly engaged in outdoor work, such as the repair of garden, catch coach, groom and so on, some people act as masters male entourage. Compared with the footman, maid's wages are very low, most people at the annual salary of between 8 to 20 pounds. [4] (P. 147) a footman, if his main job is to wait on the table next to the master, he can get the clothing and small fees for additional income, but the annual salary is generally £ 50. And a culinary workers, requires a certain skill, the annual income of not more than 20 pounds. [5] (P. 177) Many of them, their wages can hardly feed themselves. 1862 'Edinburgh Review' reports: '400, 000 maid, the annual wage almost no one over 10 pounds, and many people do not more than eight pounds, and there was a girl the most common and economical clothing of fees, an average of six years in rural areas, pounds, urban areas are 7 pounds, the maid almost no money left to share with their families. '[6] (P. 176)
        As the 19th century, large number of new tools, new farming practices, the invention of applications, such as livestock raising new methods and the use of agricultural machinery and fertilizers employed women have lost opportunities for women in agricultural production have been marginalized as seasonal workers. Their wages at a low level. Women's historian Yves. Qibei Ke product statistics, the 19th century, the average daily wage of agricultural workers are: South West counties, 5 to 8 pence in winter, spring and summer 7 to 10 pence, dry grass and harvesting season, eight pence to 1 shilling, plus one or two pints of apple juice. Slightly higher number of other areas, such as Kent, Surrey, Sussex and other places, women do Daejeon general farm work are 8 to 10 pence, 10 pence to the Sai Tso one shillings, harvesting one shillings three pence to one shillings 6 pence; in Yorkshire, the harvest season, the wages of female day laborers are sometimes able to achieve one shillings six pence. [7] (P. 95) most of the year, agricultural workers are unemployed status. 1843 'employment of women and children in agricultural areas, the Commission' claiming 'agricultural workers is the lowest income groups'.
        After the 19th century, 70 years, with the development of industrialization, there has been 'white revolution', a significant increase in the number of staff, 1851 ~ 1911, the number of staff from 95,000 to 843,000 people employed in the whole population of the proportion of from 1.2% to 4.6%, female staff from 2% to 20%. [8] (P. 154) However, generally speaking, mainly female staff such as typists, telegraph operator, operator, classification, inspection data and other knowledge, skills, low levels of the work department. With other industries, the wages of female staff is only male staff member for 25 ~ 50%. According to historian Allen statistics, annual income of up to 180 male staff member £ 215 pounds or 350 pounds, whereas the income of female staff had never reached the same level. In 1891, 200 women employed in the commercial sector employees, of which only 17 people in the work of the fourth year of annual salary of up to 60 pounds more than the highest paid female staff salary and only 90 pounds, male staff in more than 20 years old, wages on the can be automatically increased to 150 pounds. [9] (P. 74,75) Even if the male and female staff engaged in the same work, men's wages than women. Robert's novels so of conversation: male staff member of the female staff member Robert Neil said: 'To my shame, my shame, you work hard than I do, than I do, your working hours longer than I, and you pay just my half, and why? Neil. 'Neil said:' Because I was a girl. '[8] (P. 162) postal system, was the largest number of staff departments, women's suffrage movement leader of the 19th century Marlene. Heermeisi (Marion Holmes) to provide when the sector the gender wage status: lower-level 2 male staff member, annual salary is 70 to 250 pounds, two lower-level female staff member, annual salary is only 65 ~ 110 pounds, high-level two male staff member, annual salary of 250 ~ 350 pounds, a female staff member, and only 115 ~ 140 pounds. [10] (P. 4)
        These can be seen 19th-century British working women out of the family, as an independent wage-earners into the labor market, they are employed in low-skilled, low-wage sectors. Large numbers of women and can not feed themselves, have been forced to get married as to avoid unemployment, means of subsistence. The poor girl can accept any of the conditions of marriage, or even illegal marriage. Because for them, this is the only way out. Mothers encourage their daughters to marry in order to reduce the family burden. Officials in many parishes of the diocese of relief in order to shirk responsibility, forcing women to marry, but they prohibit the Diocese of men and married women have trouble.
        General labor families to send their girls as a burden on the family. 1892 guivry wire (jeffries) writes: 'If a farmer's wife gave birth to a son that she will be very happy, this is not to say that she received from God a man, but rather thank him for his girls,''there is not one of the older The peasant woman said she would prefer the seven boys do not want a girl, because the former can become a young man, out to earn money to feed themselves, but the girl you never know when she can be self-sustaining''girls who every day feel girl is a mistake. '[11] (P. 32) Thus, men constitute the main body of industrial society, and even some scholars believe that the gender division of labor, gender discrimination in the industrialization strengthened.
                        Second, women's low wages cause analysis
        Why is gender division of labor and the gender wage? Some scholars believe that women are naturally physically weaker, pregnancy and other factors to make their working hours than the average male, thus affecting the family, the community of their investment in human resources. While men than women through a variety of ways to receive more technical training, get better skills. Thus, women's employment and wages are at a disadvantage. Some other scholars believe that women are naturally less able than men, she could only enjoy the low wages. Marxist scholars and feminist scholars believe that women as a cheap, free flow of labor, the existence and development of modern capitalism basis. The author believes that the reasons for low wages to women is complex, multifaceted, and the 19th century, the 'men outside the women inside' the traditional concept of the British labor market, gender division of labor, the root causes of the gender wage.
        For a long time, British society that the men's pride, self-esteem means brave, strong, independent, and women's pride and self-esteem is a pure, keep home and motherhood. Therefore, 'women inside men outside the' family model can best embody the characteristics of men and women of their gender, women's full-time as a good wife, a man out to make money is the best division of family roles. For women, doing domestic work, to bring happiness to her husband, and create a good family atmosphere is their greatest responsibility. Comfort the family can prevent a man drinking, so that the whole family to enjoy better material. Otherwise, the men in the household make them into people who have no male temperament, the family would fall into chaos. Parliamentary ombudsmen and William. Daudet (William Dodd) in 1842, wrote: 'This is sad, but men take care of families and children, are busy washing, baking, kids, for his wife in the factory to prepare dinner poor. '[12] (P. 101) So, people in marriage and motherhood as women, the best destination. Boys and girls from an early age to grow up in different environments, social and have demonstrated to the men more opportunities.
        The issue of Education, although some religious groups and Educational institutions from the theoretical emphasis to women and men equal access to Education, in fact, both society and their families, pay more attention to boys Education. Over the years, the doors of higher education for girls closed until the late 19th century, only a small number of women into the University College to study, but as the highest institution of higher education in the United Kingdom, Oxford, Cambridge or the delay in giving them award degrees. The 19th century 80's, at Oxford University to discuss whether to give women's participation in degree qualification examination, a priest of the Oxford University women to make such a speech: 'When God made man and when you are smarter than we are poor, you have to keep to the world of the poor end, you will not destroy this pattern. '[13] (P. 126) until 1893, Oxford University was to enable women to participate in any degree course examinations, the University of Cambridge to 1948, had agreed to grant women degrees.
        In the secondary and primary education, labor families to send their girls as a money machine, in the northern industrial areas, due to high demand labor force, in the ordinary seems to 7 ~ 8-year-old girls should take care of himself. Therefore, the girl was taken very early factories, no chance of admission.
        Boys and girls of different enrollment rates can prove this point. Times, such as London, Baldwin (Baldwin 's Gardens) School, 1812 ~ 1832 registered students, male 7089, female 4262 people. [11] (P. 55) boys and girls was almost double.
        At the same time, compared with boys and girls have to bear the heavy burden of domestic work, school boys, girls also can not have that kind of in-school learning time. They must always be to help the mother in the household, especially during the family members are sick, or the mother or someone else outside the mother give birth. Some girls school to allow girls to school, no they are not permitted to attend school, or even tacit approval of their younger siblings to come into the school. In 1842, one observer found in schools in Liverpool more than a dozen children, followed her sister to go to school. If the 19th century because of the lack of leisure time of workers, lack of money, and therefore can not be guaranteed the right to education, then the women than the average male workers have less free time, less money, less access to education.
        Goals in education, most educators and theorists have emphasized the gender differences in education. Adam. Smith 'The Wealth of Nations' clearly pointed out: women' what they have learned in all, without exception, clearly has some useful purpose: To improve the physical nature Fengzi her to form her inner caution, humility, chastity, and the virtues of thrift; taught to womanhood, so she deserves to be called the future, housewives and so on '. [14] (P. 3387) This means that women, especially middle and upper levels of women, the only experience is to become a wife and homemaker, and she only can do is to attract men with their own gender. For boys, the school education is to enable them to learn basic cultural knowledge and skills in various sectors of production and become the family bread earners who. 19th century, 40 years, the Board of Education recommended educating boys, the curriculum includes history, geography, how to make money, philosophy, political economy, general astronomy, and other basic courses. Girls receive more than their religious education, mathematics, and writing training.
        For girls, education is always associated with the role of mothers grow up together. They are not as small as a boy accept the production skills of the training, but a simple knowledge of education and domestic skills training. Some educators believe that: 'Most people believe that a high standard of general course of study would affect the girl's moral and domestic labor skills training, the girls in a narrow range of knowledge that she was of interest. Let the girls too much to accept, such as geography and grammar subjects like education, will affect her family services. '[11] (P. 110) and some education observers have also suggested that knowledge of women's education should link education and domestic work. Such as mathematics education should be combined with statistical shopping bills, writing to and how to deep-fried leg of lamb and other domestic work linked to chemical stress is that through the culinary practice, so that the hands of the hostess what kind of temperatures can make the best food. 19th century, 70,80 years, officially recognized by the Department of primary education in primary schools, the implementation of family-skills education for women, such as cooking, laundry, clothing and so on. 50 the late 19th century British public school curriculum, learning reading, writing, arithmetic, geography, history, music, painting and other courses in the proportion of boys than girls, mechanics, physics, algebra courses purely boys, only knit a purely female courses. Clearly, gender differences in the aim of education is to create conditions for girls to be good housewives for the boys to participate in social competition preparation.
        In this way, men in the industrialized rapidly building up its technological superiority to maintain the gender wage. Industrialization began, the manipulation and monitoring workers and the establishment of a new machine technology is the key to industry dominance, and these techniques rely on a certain time to get professional training. Men have more training opportunities and training time. Changes in industrial production, under the premise quickly acquire new work skills, to become artisans and craftsmen, and thus competition in the labor market to gain advantage. Such as: 70,80 years in the 18th century, spinning machine used in the family, from high-wage women, manipulating, and later refined the steam mule spinning machine applied, women's physical skills are not competent and skilled workers to replace men, women, a gradual monopolization of the type of work. The 19th century, in the textile industry in various technical departments, to further marginalization of women, which not only means that they do not have enough practical knowledge, but employers can not find enough skilled workers to replace men. In the woolen textile industry, almost all of the technical work is done by men, few women and men doing the same work. In the silk industry, adult men increased the technical content of the work, and dominated the sector supervision and management and enjoy high wages, women have lost their last hundred years in the industry dominance. West Lancashire textile industry to provide further proof of evidence 'skilled' the word is not simply an objective description of the nature of work, but men work and women's work the difference. Feminist Barbara. Taylor (Barbara Taylor) said, 'The Subjection of women workers in the plant capacity to determine the value of her work,''technology means that a specific gender and power, technology, and a man linked to a lack of technical contact with women together, the men at the technology center, the technical boundaries of gender and women's lack of power related to '. [12] (P. 62) As a result, the labor market, women compete with men inevitably at a disadvantage.
        'The man outside the women inside' concepts of the role of division of labor wage theory and the basis for trade union activities. 'The man outside the women inside' concept, where an economist has become theoretical, systematic gender wage paradigm. Adam. Smith made the gender wage 'dichotomy': that 'the most common lower-level workers, in order to support two children, at least to obtain the required times the cost of living on their own, while his wife, the need to take care of children, their labor income only enough to maintain their own. '[15] (P. 62) Adam. Smith's view, the gender of the family bears a different responsibility and obligation to determine their different wage. Women's responsibility is to care for their children, perform household chores and can not independently assume the economic responsibility, the minimum wage as long as they are able to maintain her own life, you can at a minimum survival needs of human meager state, a man to support himself, his wife, a certain number of children his salary even in the most intense competition, state, and women can not be at the same level. Factory owners to the theory as a depressed women's wages, access to high profits.
        Men unions to 'men outside the women inside' the concept of competition as a tool for exclusion of women. So that women working in the home, maintenance men, who earned the role of bread, which has become the 19th century, one of the main objectives of trade union activities. As the development of industrialization in the labor market, men, women face the threat of cheap labor. In order to safeguard the interests of men and spinning workers 'trade union textile workers' (The Grand General Union of Spinners) adopted by John. Multi-Hart (John Doherty) put forward by the exclusion of girls and married women out of the organization's motion, as early typical persistence of gender segregation organization. 19th century 30's, workers, political movement's immediate objective is to narrow the scope of full-time employment of women, maintenance of traditional gender division of labor, improve quality of life for workers and their families. 1834, 9000 Tailoring Workers went on strike, its purpose is to raise wages, abolition of piece-rate wages, the end of women's dominance in the industry. Tailors who announced: 'the condition of women employed sympathetic seamstress, making them escape the responsibility of women. This is obviously is to create a war within the family. '[12] (P. 125) In the same year, miners associations:' to enable women to stay at home to take care of the family''to reduce the pressure on the labor market to promote opportunities for men with high wages. '[12] (P. 15) of the Charter movement and the fight for working 10-hour course of the Bill, the male trade unionists and further expressed the hegemonic ideology of this man:' a married woman's duty is to better manage the family, rather than the Circuit exhausted the machine to function''influx of women into the labor market has not only left their areas of need, but also reduce the wage standards for workers'. [12] (P. 128) They tried through official legislation, to ensure the realization of the right men.
        After the mid-19th century, the trade union movement continued to strengthen the patriarchal ideology. 19th century, 70,80 age, male skilled workers to maintain employment, retaining their own monopoly and the establishment of new rules to prevent the women's competition. 'British Trade Union Congress' leader Henry.布罗特哈斯特 (Henry Broadhurst) in 1877 clearly stated the annual meeting of the union, male union members as a man and the husband's responsibility is to strive to meet his wife back for her family , no longer living with the strong involvement of the male competition. Factories Act 1876 Committee and the 1889 production of male workers up the chain of Hospitals Electoral Commission statement of the benefits of women's return to the family. 'When married women into the workshop, to become her husband's competitors, the result must be earned with the men and women to participate in the work that she did not, the men earned its own share of wages'. [11] (P.68), the Committee also claimed that women, men and women working together can cause moral hazard, loss of female characteristics, destruction of the human well-being. In 1894, 'women's trade union allies' Mr Ji Qi Germany. Alexis de Tocqueville (Gertrude Tuckwell) suggested that children grow up to be able to take care of themselves before the prohibition of working mothers. The alliance against the under-five children of working mothers.
        Under the influence of the trade union movement, many women's participation in the trade union movement, but also agree that men who earn bread concept. 1853 ~ 1854 briston strikes is due to two workers were dismissed and this cause, but in the movement, women married women to leave the labor market's recommendations. A representation of women Margaret. Fletcher (Margaret Fletcher) is expressed as women left home to go to work, men stay at home and feel sad. She announced that men in the family who earn bread.
        In fact, this ideal of the gender division of labor for men, there is a full-time wife, you can enjoy more leisure time, will live more comfortable. For women, although the assumed full responsibility for household chores, while the economy is dependent on those who do not enjoy such as national insurance payments like social security, but also the protection of social legislation not only in a secondary position.
        Meanwhile, the trade union movement has prompted the country enact Laws to protect male privilege, and strengthen 'the man outside the women inside' concept. 19th century, the provisions of the Factories Act, 30,40 Age: Women and children in need of protection, like, women's labor time per day should not exceed 12 hours, including meal break of not less than 1.5 hours, and working hours limited to 5:00 in the morning until 9 pm . 1842 Coal Mine Act provides: 10 meters below the mine ban the employment of women and children. 1867 farm bill prohibits the employment of children under 8 years old for women and men together make up the farm labor force. In this way, rural women have returned to their homes. The Security Act of 1844, the provisions of machine maintenance done by adult males as, it establishes that the machine repair and adjustment of workers are men, the nature of work.
        Many of these factories will stress the legislation unilaterally to provide protection for women, in fact did not really play a role in protecting the interests of women. The Factories Act has been pushed out of factories, mines, a large number of women are unemployed, and economically more dependent on male relatives, some people in order to survive, had to enter from the protection of the Factories Act 'sweat industries', such as knitting, matches manufacturing . These are basically small workshop carried out in the family, work environment even worse, work longer, pay less.
        Thus, feminist scholars believe that legislation to stimulate the women responsible for the welfare of infants and children, rather than encourage the community to provide facilities for children. In fact, the legislation to some extent prevent the women in the labor market, fair competition so that they fall into the low-wage industries or unemployment trap; and men through the legislation, not only in the labor market has been dominated, and enjoy more leisure time, they are the real beneficiaries of the Factories Act. Historians K. He Niman view that the legislation produced by the standardization of working hours and working conditions, gender division of labor to establish an integral part of the process.
        These can be seen in the 'men outside the women inside' under the influence of social attitudes, the entire 19th century, men through education, trade union activity, factory legislation reconstruction of male employment advantage, maintaining the gender wage, thus establishing him in the family, the community dominance of women in a subordinate position. However, women from the property is not a new phenomenon in industrial society. The pre-industrial period, the working women engaged in auxiliary work, there is no separate wages, their labor income includes the income of men in the family, but also women and children as a cheap labor force is the pre-industrial period, family and the basis of economic expansion, which is the period of industrialization , a lot cheaper to employ women of child labor there is no qualitative difference. However, it is undeniable, industrialization, women's status as an independent wage earners into the labor market, which is the emancipation of women, a prerequisite for achieving gender equality. Of course, 'the man outside the women inside' as the concept of male hegemony, a form of social behavior, social and personal life to infiltrate all areas of dominate people's thinking patterns and behavior patterns, it can not be with the modernization of the socio-economic structure and structural changes in social life and rapid disintegration, therefore, the gender division of labor, gender wage, women subordinate to men, in the short term phenomenon and can not be a complete change. Until modern society, this concept continues to affect women's work and life. Breaking the shackles of old ideas is also a thoroughly contemporary society to address gender inequalities in the key.
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[Original Source] Zhejiang Education Institute: Comprehensive Edition
[Original published names] Hangzhou
[Originally published Issue No.] 20056
[Originally published page number] 34 ~ 40
[CLC] D423
[Category name] Women's Studies
[Copy Issue] 200,603
[English Title] A Study of the Situation of the British Women 's Pay in the Nineteenth Century
        PAN Ying-hua
        (School of the Humanities, Zhejiang Education Institute, Hangzhou 310012, China)
[Article Date] 2005-09-29
[Author] Pan Ying-hua
[Author] Pan Ying-Hua, Zhejiang Institute of Education, Humanities Institute, Hangzhou 310012, China
        PAN Ying-hua (1961 -), female, Zhejiang Xianju people, Zhejiang Institute of Education, College of Humanities, Associate Professor, history master's degree.