The central administrative system in ancient China Brief History

Abstract: The centralized system of ancient China, the central administrative management system changes and adjustments presented here the following rules: the exercise of imperial power around the track formed Colonial mechanism between the different administrative system has obvious iconic, inheritance , imperial conflict between the right and the phase is to promote institutional change in the administration of the underlying causes, factors outside the system involved in administrative operation. through the central administration of ancient Chinese system of Research and study, come to the following revelation: the right to and check each other to ensure the country's Political activities in an orderly manner the basic premise, to strengthen the independence of supervisory power and authority to prevent the Public Right is an important means of institutional arrangements should be adapted to changes in the social and economic development, the definition of staff functions should be clearly defined.

Keywords:: central authority, Colonial system, of imperial power, phase power.

China has always been famous for its long history, resulting in a number of outstanding statesmen, thinkers, strategists, and all kinds of excellent management personnel, there has been the Han, Tang, Song, Ming and Qing walk in the forefront of world history, a powerful dynasty. rulers in the country has accumulated a wealth of management experience, but because of the historical limitations and class limitations, there are some backward system. while Research into the history of Chinese administrative system is not only an important academic subject but also to learn from history. understanding of the past, grasp the law of historical development, to understand the trend of the times. Therefore, this article attempts by the central administration of the Qin Dynasty to the Qing production management system, development and understanding of the laws give the evolution of both positive and negative experiences were compared, and to make certain of.

First, the central administrative system in ancient China History.

(A Han period Excellencies Jiuqing system.

221 BC, the Qin Dynasty Tongyiliuguo, Qin Ying Zheng established a centralized great unification of the Qin Dynasty, the first feudal society in China 2,000 years of the emperor system continued. In order to consolidate the feudal unity, the emperor adopted a series of measures to strengthen centralization of power, such as "at home and for the county, decrees by the unification", [1] (P16 "emperor built number, the post of Legislative Baiguan" and [2] (P16, established the first set of relatively complete, the system national regulatory agencies --- the central administrative system pyramid. Emperor at the top of the system, with the highest executive, judicial, military, financial, personnel and other aspects of power ", no matter the size thing in the world are dependent on the" , [3] (P16 and that these powers are not subject to any restrictions. followed by "Three", the central hub for the Qin state decision-making body to coordinate the emperor handled state affairs. "Excellencies" refers to the Prime Minister House, the government and Qiu royal doctor House. prime minister, the central government is the highest in the Qin Dynasty central decision-making body whose function is to "palm cheng emperor, Assistant million machine". [4] (P273 Qiu Qin Dynasty, the central government as the highest military body, royal doctor for the Qin highest supervisory body central. "Jiuqing" as the Qin Dynasty, the executive management of the central institutions, is located at the third level, respectively, Feng Chang, doctor orders, Wei Wei, Taipu, Tingwei, Code of passengers, the rule Su history, being examined, less government, etc., were in charge of the royal family, security, rituals, agriCulture, justice, national and foreign affairs. Jiuqing also have their own Shuli, government counterparts with the Excellencies, the next connection with the county, and the Emperor central decision-making body, to convey to the implementation of sector specific, and is responsible for monitoring the implementation of the guidance. can see the emperor's private business sector and the state administration bodies mixed with each other, intertwined with the early feudal society, a feature set of national institutions. Han Central institutions set is basically inherited the system of Qin and a slight change, is still "Three", "Jiuqing" as the main body of the House. But with the development of society, than the Qin Dynasty, the Western Han Dynasty more robust institutions and organizations, functions a more complete division of labor is also more detailed. Eastern Han Dynasty of national institutions, is still contracted to the Western Han Dynasty general principles, but also made some adjustments. such as the early Eastern Han Dynasty, "Three" the name of the government agencies has evolved to: Stuart House, Qiu government and Sagong government (that is, when the prime minister Han House, Qiu Government House and the royal doctor. which, Qiu Han central government as the highest military body in the "Three" in the first, not only in charge of military matters, but also in charge of many administrative matters, the Eastern Han "Three" change of authority of one of the symbols. the Eastern Han Dynasty set up national institutions Another sign of change in Book of Taiwan to become the central decision-making body, and overhead of the "Three" House. Guangwu Liu Xiuxin either side of the courtiers and reuse - - Book of History, the original attributed to less government of authority of the Temple of increasingly grand Book of Taiwan. The Book of Taiwan, "Cao six" institutional settings, administrative sub-CAO office, the functions of the executive agencies tend to complete, for the future, "six" system bodies laid the foundation established. Overall, the Sangong Jiuqing system administrative system, the need for the state administration, not quite at home. This is mainly reflected in the management of state government affairs organization and management of the Royal did not clearly separated, and the Chief Executive agencies Royal affairs agencies in the management of a large proportion of some important functions of the specialized agencies not responsible for the implementation, in addition, Jiuqing the government offices have not yet fixed, the staff observe the phenomenon of impermanence also more common. show that the formation of the Political environment in the beginning of absolute monarchy, administrative system and its operation is still in start-up and exploratory stage.

(B six provinces of Sui and Tang Dynasties system.

Six provinces of the central system is the Sui and Tang Dynasties administrative system. Sui and Tang dynasties, especially the Tang Dynasty, is the development of China's feudal society heyday, the state government institution-building has developed to a new stage. Sui Dynasty was founded, ruled Northern and Southern Dynasties were other miscellaneous mining towards the institutional setup of the style, the official home design and improvement of the "provinces", "six" system of institutions set pattern. the Central Secretariat: Prepared Zhangzou, cashier Dahir, subglottic Province: Master charge of auditing, forwarding Chao and Jian Yi, Almost all the Central Secretariat of the edict of the proposed chapter policy, have to be by Ha province, dismissed that mistakes at the line to reduce the fault chancery: the central management agencies Supreme Administrative Services, in charge of "six." chancery jurisdiction, "six", that the Ministry of Personnel, Ministry of Rites, the Ministry of War, Board of Punishments, and Industry, the people department. Tang Dynasty established, national institutions Early in general followed the Sui Dynasty, the state administrative system, the central body the "provinces", "six" as the core. to the Tang Dynasty before the mid-term, to strengthen the monarchical power, "provinces" separation of powers, executive secretariat, subglottic Province and chancery checks and balances to contain each other, bringing a number of drawbacks. contain each other into a mutual constraints, resulting in red tape, buck-passing, decree hard line consequences. In view of this, when the Tang Emperor Taizong together will be in the book, studied under the "Zhengshi Tang," based on the procedure, and another set " Ha Ping Zhangshi with the book, "the exercise of the powers of the prime minister." provinces "Executive official is no longer easy to delegate, in the book, begins to narrow the range of functions under the door. Emperor, in order to solve the matter by the Central Secretariat complex, redundant instrument lag disadvantages brought about by the redundancy and the need to further strengthen the imperial power, formally established the Imperial Academy School. Hanlin Imperial Academy after the home was built, and "sects in the book" a total charge of the hub and gradually hijacked the "sects in the book" part of the power. Imperial Academy and the "provinces" of the Executive are different, their very close relationship with the emperor.

Bachelor of confidant of the emperor were mostly on the emperor is the toe, so they feel reassured the emperor, but also easy to control and manage. Akimune from Emperor Xian Zong to the end of the Tang Dynasty eunuch of the peak period, this trend forces attached to the imperial power , attached to the imperial power which it poses a serious threat.

Eunuch, imperial power gradually sidelined, the rule of the Tang Dynasty rapid slide into decline. In short, "Tang rulers of state administration bodies and the court services agency completely separate, more detailed division of functions, clear, and gradually formed a system," [5] (P33 reflects the rule of the Tang ruling class in the accumulation of experience and Political maturity. but the essence is still centralized, imperial power is still lack of effective checks.

(C Five Dynasties and Ten States and the Northern Song Dynasty government three Secretaries of the two systems.

Second House Third Division system is the Northern Song Dynasty Five Dynasties and Ten States and the central administration system. In view of disparate administrative regions due to the late Tang and Five Dynasties, "the light weights,"

Situation, the Song rulers to strengthen the centralized system as a foundation of a nation "in the Political and administrative measures taken to enhance the well-centralized and imperial power, in the central organizational system, the Third Division to the second system of government replaced the Sui six provinces of the DPRK's system. "[6]" Second House "that Zhengshi Tang and the Privy Council, two handles on the charge of civil and military, with the prime minister of the office. Zhengshi Tang, Tang passage of the system, the full name" in the book subglottic Zhengshi Tang ", referred to in book. Privy Council referred to Shu Fu, the nation's highest military authority, the head of the senator to make, mostly for civil act, and its function is to palm "militarism maintenance, military defense, side preparation, his military of the decree, cashier secret life, to Zuobang rule." [7] (P487 "Third Division" as the Five Dynasties and the Song of the top financial institutions. Tang, in order to raise financial use to the Ministry, Expenditures, salt the three main national wealth by the Secretary for the cashier, the name of the beginning of the third Division. Song Li, because of its system to three Secretaries General of national planning, total number of provinces, set up three of a person Secretary, the "total phase," said, whose function is to "use palm Bangguo fiscal plans, the total salt and iron, Expenditures, the Ministry of things to by the world financial Yan Fu and have access to them ". [8] (P493 II Division III system of government the executive power and military power will be isolated, and do not govern, directly responsible to the emperor," This is a major adjustment measures, membership in split-phase power, three Division (Taishi, Tutor, CPIC Sangong (Qiu, Stuart, Sagong useless, bit respect the right of None. "[9] in order to strengthen the imperial power, the Song rulers also adopted the" divide powers "" Officials and staff special "way to undermine the official power, official separation of misnomer. office is only used to indicate its products rank, salary, Zhang served basis, instead of palm real power, real power rests in the" sent hands " , that approach is the emperor of power control in the hands of one person, but also caused excessive redundant Song officials, administrative expenses has always been the situation remains high.

(D Jin, Yuan and early Ming period a province of six system.

Six system is the existence of a province in the Jin, Yuan and early Ming central administrative system. Since the Yuan Dynasty vast territory, far ahead of the generation, numerous affairs, while the three provinces is the crux of the system many decision-making process, departments passing the buck led to administrative inefficiency, therefore not conducive to the rule. If the implementation of a provincial system, the concentration of powers, it can improve the administrative efficiency, so as to achieve the purpose of avoiding administrative failure. Kublai Khan inspired decision to hit gold the old system, the implementation of a provincial system. the abolition of the sects since the Tang and Song dynasties, in the book, the Book provinces, side by side the system, only set up a Central Secretariat, the Executive Zhongshu Ling served by the Crown Prince in name only, is a symbol of imperial power extends. "province" instead of "provinces," marking the Tang Song decentralization since the end of the transition to the single-track multi-track system of Colonial Colonial system, also marks the height of strengthening authoritarian politics, but also further strengthen the operation of institutional awareness of the power. Since the Yuan Dynasty to the books as the highest provincial administration, and six of its affiliates to the court in charge of all government benefit, and the formation of a province of six system.

"Six" for the grant of decree of election officials in charge of the world's board of civil, land tax charge of the world accounts decree the Ministry of Land, palm toward the world will swallow enjoy the ritual sacrifice Imperial Examination decree Rites, fortune, animal husbandry, the world Junyi decree Tuen Post Station Ministry of War, Celebrated Criminal law decrees the world palm and palm the world to create hundreds of hands of the Ministry of Punishments decree and Industry. In short, these changes is to adapt to long-term rule of the Yuan Dynasty of the situation is not stable, but also local decrees and highly centralized system of giving more feasible to provide .

(Five of six cabinet system of Ming and Qing Dynasties.

Six cabinet system is a centralized system of the Ming and Qing dynasties. In view of the Ming Dynasty rulers, "Quan Chen in politics," the prime minister too much power and the Central Secretariat and the lessons of imperial crisis, reform the old system, the abolition of the prime minister system to replace the cabinet adopted the 1500 system system for many years the prime minister, six by the commander of the emperor directly.

Six by raising the status of the emperor can more effectively direct the work of ministries, while the power and easy to put all highly concentrated in the hands of the sovereign to further strengthen the imperial power. In short, the Cabinet is the highest Colonial Ming central body, the functions of the consultant , staff, decision-making, and six is the highest Ming central executive body responsible directly to the emperor, sub-Ren Zhaozheng the highest level executive, whose function is to implement, manage and coordinate the government.

Early Qing central government's administration inherited the Ming dynasty in the form of institutional structure, officials, families, courtesy, military, Criminal, six workers is still the major administrative agencies. Yongzheng of the Qing Dynasty in the central body set up a new - - Grand Council, to gradually replace the full system of aristocratic government, weakened the Political power of the Cabinet Chengzhi out to become a notional Xu Xian, but not interfere with routine maintenance of the handling of bodies. As many confidential affairs, militarism To apply for services by the Grand Council, the Cabinet Saisuke is in name only. Grand Council became the Qing dynasty emperor powerful tool to maintain absolute monarchy, the exercise of "militarism plan the neglect does not dominate" [10] (P793 function, these changes are beneficial to the feudal Marxist centralized system to further strengthen and reinforce the need for imperial power. Meanwhile, "Under this system, the central government's administrative, military, financial, judicial power are concentrated on various emperor one, the country is bad political management is excellent and fully, as the Emperor personal qualities and abilities of the ", [11] The disadvantages are also obvious. [Free Paper Download Center hi138/Com]

Second, the ancient Chinese system of central administration of the law of development.

Through the ancient Chinese system of central administration of the general evolution of sort, we can conclude that the central administrative system in ancient China, the development reflects the following few rules.

(A focus on the exercise of imperial power and the formation of double-track Colonial mechanism.

In the centralized imperial system of feudal despotism is not subject to any restrictions under the emperor has the highest administrative, judicial, military, financial, personnel and other powers, in charge of world affairs. However, a person's ability and effort, after all, limited, the management of state affairs the emperor can not attend to personally everything, power and ability to make the inevitable asymmetry between the emperor of power and to separate the part of the transaction to its courtiers, to help the emperor to handle state affairs. Then, with Colonial Sangong first, and later with the outside towards the inside track toward the Colonial and Colonial Quan Chen system. the emperor in order to ensure the supremacy of imperial power, does not cause too much power and Colonial threat to the dominance of imperial power, so it is willing to Excellencies Colonial Colonial with two-track system, or to help govern the country. On the other hand, the ruling clique of the point of structural adjustment on the Colonial powers and enhance the rule is to focus on performance to meet the growing changes in society and increasingly complex political situation. ruling on the Colonial system adjustment, aimed at trying to establish a threat of harm not only on the throne, so tame Colonial remain loyal, but who can maintain a high degree of confidentiality Colonial with high efficiency system. In short, the two-track Colonial system is formed around the exercise of imperial power, but also the right of imperial power and phase results of each game.

(B between the different administrative system has obvious iconic, inheritance.

Since the Qin Dynasty established the "Three Jiuqing" as the core of the central decision-making and administrative institutions has been the unified Chinese history as a feudal society, the first set of more complete, more systematic national regulatory agencies for the next few thousand years Under the feudal monarchy system of central administration continues to complete, mature and lay the foundation for development. If the Qin Dynasty to the Western Han Dynasty set up national institutions set of national institutions, that the "Han Qin system," and then as aforesaid Early Qing central government's administration inherited the Ming Dynasty in the form of institutional mechanisms, at the same time into the characteristics of the formation of the Manchu, officials, families, courtesy, military, Criminal, workers are still six main administrative agency, etc. . In short, the establishment of various dynasties can not be completely out of the last dynasty of the political, economic, cultural and other aspects of the impact of the re-establishment of a completely different from the previous dynasty, must be based on the former, combined with the DPRK the actual situation and the social environment to establish a set of rulers of the dynasty's power management system in order to better maintain its rule management. Therefore, between the different administrative system has obvious iconic, inheritance.

(Game of the three phases of imperial power and the administrative system to promote change.

In the Han Dynasty, for example, has been since the Western Han Dynasty, he was "Three," the House Executive who are Sydney and the royal court. These people in power, a serious threat to the exercise of imperial power. And even the founding of the beginning of the Eastern Han Dynasty, Liu Xiu will Guangwu on "Three", "Jiuqing" all agencies to adjust --- weakened, job transfer, downsizing, and its purpose is to strengthen the imperial power, weakened relative to the right. Another example is the Eastern Han Dynasty, "things go Taiwan Pavilion", Book of Taiwan has become an important hub decision-making bodies. Guangwu Liu Xiuxin any reuse --- Book of courtiers around, so, to allow the government attributed to a small platform of authority of the Temple of the Book of increasingly grand., a former prime minister described the Ming Dynasty abolished the system to replace the cabinet system 1500 years of the prime minister follows the system of direct command by the emperor of six, the establishment of six cabinet system, and further to win the right phase to strengthen the imperial power, and Qing military establishment at the concentration of powers but also to consolidate the imperial power, and so, no not the right of imperial power and phase with each other struggle to promote change in the administrative management system example. In short, the administrative system to promote change in the underlying causes, the contradiction between imperial power and phase, but essentially administrative requirements Monarchy Centralization and concentration of powers to improve the efficiency of the conflict, and ultimately both to reach a compromise. On the other hand, social development and the rise and fall of various political forces, but also changes in the administrative system of the important reasons the development. If the early Western Han Dynasty, a large number of meritorious veterans formed the political forces to ensure that the prime minister , Colonial government censor the second system is relatively stable, some of the bureaucratic and favored the new letter from the wife's family, with their own abilities and nepotism, has made a political advantage, auxiliary power will shift to the hands of the political forces , grade System implementation, the gentry to the leading political force powerful family affairs of state, Governor outside the provincial governor, take political advantage, and the establishment of the imperial examination system, so that a large number of scholar from entering the private sector career, some of them among the high and so on. In this under the influence of various factors, but also in the traditional administrative system has not formed a reasonable administrative leadership.

(D factors outside of the system involved in administrative work.

Factors involved in the administrative operation outside of the system, has been the traditional society, especially the highly centralized authoritarian administration inevitable social ills. With the feudal system, improving the emperor in order to facilitate the rule and complete establishment of a large bureaucracy from above, Shimoji manages the entire country. To make the state apparatus, coordinated operation, so that each executive agency to perform its functions effectively, they must give all the appropriate legal authority to administrative agencies, with staffing, the establishment of rules and norms, etc. These are all activities of the national functional organizations procedures and standardization are necessary. compiled from various dynasties "will Code", "will be" and the laws and institutions, we can clearly see the ancient dynasties of the powers of administrative agencies at all levels, and so does the preparation of a clear and detailed requirements. but because of the Emperor across the country have supreme authority and absolute power, imperial power structure in the dominant state power and dominance, without any constraints to the inevitable abuse of power, autocratic, arbitrary intervention and dealing with political affairs, which led to political chaos and out of control. also, such as, full-time power changed hands in order to prevent the sovereign, often quoted around the eunuch or chamberlain Elegance in state policies, the personal residence palace, the emperor attendants around, and gradually evolved into extrauterine government officials in the so-called corresponding to or within the Chaoguan Chaoguan. These officials "tend to appear as the representative of imperial power, holding Wang Jue, mouth-day constitution, and regular intervention and manipulation of the activities of the national focal point, as overriding Baiguan on the government special power group ", [12] interfere with the administrative operation.

Third, the real revelation.

Study of the ancient system of central administration in order to better improve the administrative management system today. Learn some of them useful, but also to also avoid making the same mistakes. By the ancient Chinese system of central administration of the Research and discussion, the current administration process, there is the supervision of the executive branch of the imperfect system, administrative body in the exercise of power in the process of Public Right, government agencies, the standardization, legalization is not high, arbitrary changes in large, highly personal nature of and administrative assistant functions of the position is not clear and so on. combined with the administrative process of today's problems, we draw the following revelation:

(A power to check each other to ensure the country's political activities in an orderly manner the basic premise.

In ancient China, feudal society under the absolute monarchy, the supreme imperial power. Although there are unlimited expansion of imperial power constraints bottom-up political factors, such as a relatively independent administrative authority or the governing political entity ministers, or the unwritten laws and institutions of various constraints, and bureaucratic literati political pressure group relative to control mechanism, but there has been no parallel or with the imperial equivalent control mechanism. central agencies often suffer from the impact of imperial intervention and that can not be long-term, stable and effective exercise of authority , resulting in a lack of power and performance of a constant size, influence the orderly conduct of national politics. with our reality, the supervision of the government within the system, for example, on the lower administrative organ is a mutual supervision between the constraints relationship, that higher authorities can monitor lower-level administrative organs and their staff, the lower administrative organ may, in turn supervise higher authorities and the relevant leaders. but now within the administrative system of supervision of view, top-down supervision relatively easy to implement, is also more powerful, while the bottom-up supervision is relatively weak. usually presents: the next was basically a "nothing is correct", while the prevalence of the "weak supervision," "virtual Supervisor, "" lost prison "or" no prison "phenomenon, resulting in some of the problems are not corrected promptly corrected. Therefore, we should gradually be top-down one-way monitoring mode, into a top-down and self- under the supervision of the photogenic model two-way combination, can effectively avoid or reduce the faults and abuses of power, to ensure the country's political activities in an orderly manner.

(B strengthen the independence of supervisory power and authority to prevent the Public Right of important means.

Unsupervised power will inevitably lead to abuse of power and corruption. The main purpose of supervision is to prevent abuse of administrative officials. "Big Chief"

Politics in ancient China, the basic characteristics of totalitarian despotism determine the nature of political dynasties of the lateral power supervision does not exist, so that the central organs of power evolved into more dispersed, as a "foreign official" functions increasingly power more decline, while the imperial power more and more strengthened. as the emperor's valet, "the officials" had low status, but since the Han Dynasty gradually from military involvement, has appeared in chancery, executive secretariat, subglottic province, the Privy Council, the Cabinet, the Grand and other critical sectors, Public Right. It can be associated with some administration officials now will be given by the people power into profit for their own capital and means, the power in the hands of officials of inadequate supervision and monitoring the independence of the right and the authority is not enough government officials led to Public Right of important reasons. For example, the former party secretary of Shandong Tai'an NANCHANG school saying "famous": "Guaner when the bureau level, no one can supervise a." from the This may feel a do "to city" outside the corrupt officials in monitoring the real feeling. Also, Chen Xitong, Wang Baosen in unmasked before the various acts of corruption has been going on for years, and more and more blatant, and in recent years has been exposed the corruption of officials, shocked the nation, so the real case, can not but strengthen the monitoring of our country in the right to respect the independence and authority, there is still a long way to go.

(C institutional settings should be adapted to changing social and economic development needs.

Set in ancient China in the management of national affairs agencies, to maintain the normal operation of society play a role, is worthy of recognition. But the agency to set more of a status of the emperor in order to consolidate their rule established the need, not based on social the establishment of the actual needs of the development.

If its in the hands of officials of the rank and sometimes not entirely proportional to the power, "among the Need," the minister of national power structure is not necessarily the primary or central role in the "respect the right position is not heavy." Bodies set Government officials at all levels of the severity of the size of their power, not based on actual need, but on the degree of trust in the emperor, and sometimes even the emperor to maintain his absolute dominance means. with the reality, from an administrative point of view, the Chinese government standardization organizations, law degree is not high, change generous, highly personal nature. If our country is the civil service, there are very few hands of people who hold power, or abolish the additional random bodies, as their promotion steps or their achievements or their cronies, acquaintances, etc. An inserted into the government agencies, to expand networks, government agencies and the expansion of malicious increase in administrative costs, but also reduces the overall quality of the civil service. In short, the institutional setup not to meet the needs of social and economic development, but to cater to individual interests. because government institutions do not follow the form, rules and regulations work, although since the founding, especially since the reform and opening up institutions to develop a number of government rules and regulations, but the habit in real life, people do not act according to these specifications. administrative regulations on the surface can not be the reality of bureaucratic constraint logic led people to comply with the authority of the individual, institutional authority and personal authority than legal authority, words and deeds of individual leaders, will not subject to regulatory restrictions.

(Four staff functions should be defined clearly.

Colonial institutions central to ancient China in terms of evolution, it is easy to see between the monarch and the use of Colonial officials also mutually exclusive. Ruling on the Colonial system is to concentrate power point adjustment and improve the rule of performance to meet the growing changes increasingly complex social and political situation. ruling on the Colonial system of adjustments aimed at trying to establish a no threat to the throne, while helping the sovereign system of government. monarchical power and auxiliary power between the ill-defined, contradictory, also led to power struggles. Contact administrative system is now right in the definition of staff, there are no clear terms of reference and non-standard definition of the problem. If the Chief Secretary, formed between the leadership and personal relationship too close, the Secretary braved the leadership in the name of abuse of power, taking bribes and so on. the former Deputy Secretary of Jieyang City before accepting the value of vibration depends on the villa 300 million, illegal use of housing funds could not be recovered led to 17.58 million yuan, to the country caused huge economic losses. In another example, executive leadership and too much mistrust between the deputies, but will spend time and energy into a power struggle with the neglect of their duties, and so the phenomenon is still being in government. [Free Paper Download Center]

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